Learner autonomy in an online project-based learning: voices from Indonesian EFL students
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21070/jees.v11i1.1959Keywords:
EFL students, learner autonomy, online project-based learningAbstract
This study explored university students' levels of autonomy and identified the challenges they face in becoming more autonomous learners within a university context. The research involved 80 students from a public university in Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. A mixed-methods sequential explanatory design was employed, comprising two phases: a survey phase and an interview phase. The data were collected using closed-ended questionnaires to assess students’ levels of autonomy and semi-structured interviews to examine the challenges hindering students’ autonomy. Next, the quantitative data from the questionnaire were analyzed using simple statistical techniques, including percentages and mean scores, while the qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings revealed two key results. First, students showed high levels of autonomy across all dimensions—technical, psychological, political, and socio-cultural. Notably, none of the questionnaire items indicated a low level of autonomy. Students attributed their high autonomy to the flexibility of working independently at home and leveraging internet resources to complete their projects. They also displayed strong sociability, adaptability, and collaboration skills in achieving their goals. Second, the primary challenges faced by students to be more autonomous in online meetings involved: lecturers’ compulsory instructions, low motivation, lack of discipline, poor time management, dependence on lecturers, lack of skills, and limited interaction.
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References
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Al Ghazali, F. (2020). Challenges and opportunities of fostering learner autonomy and self-access learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. SiSAL Journal, 11 (3), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.37237/110302
Almusharraf, N. (2018). English as a foreign language learner autonomy in vocabulary development: Variation in student autonomy levels and teacher support. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 11(2), 159-177. DOI:10.1108/JRIT-09-2018-0022
Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., Sorensen, C., Razavieh, A. (2010). Introduction to research in education 8th ed. Belmont, USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Astawa, N. L, Artini, L.P., & Nitiasih, P.K (2017). Project-based learning activities and EFL students’ productive skills in English. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 8 (6), 1147-1155.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0806.16
Baz, E., Balcikanli, C., & Chepe, T. (2018) Relationship between teacher stories and encouragement of learner autonomy. Issues in Educational Research, 28 (3), 613-634.
Bennett, S., Dawson, P., Bearman, M., Molloy, E., & Boud, D. (2017). How technology shapes assessment design: Findings from a study of university teachers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48 (2), 672–682. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12439
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Blidi, S. (2017). Collaborative learner autonomy: A mode of learner autonomy development. Oman: Springer
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Dinca, M., Lusxtrea, A., Crasxovan, M., Onitxiu, A. Berge,T. (2023). Students’ perspectives on team dynamics in project-based online learning. SAGE Open, 1–16. DOI:10.1177/21582440221147269
Eurydice. (2008). Levels of autonomy and responsibilities of teachers in Europe. Brussels: Education and Culture DG.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning (first published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe). Oxford: Pergamon.
Humphreys, G. & Wyatt, M. (2014). Helping Vietnamese university learners to become more autonomous. ELT Journal, 68 (1), 52–63.
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Hsu, L. (2022). EFL learners’ self-determination and acceptance of LMOOCs: the UTAUT model. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1-29.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1976210
Jing, G. (2017). Peer-teaching in college English classes: An action research to promote learner autonomy. Cross-Cultural Communication, 13 (2), 16-20.
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Kaunang, C. J. (2017). Using project-based learning in enhancing students’ speaking skills at SMA PSKD 7. Journal of English Teaching, 3 (2), 119 – 133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33541/jet.v3i2.704
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Khotimah, K., Widiati, U., Mustofa, M., Ubaidillah, M. F. (2019). Autonomous English learning: Teachers’ and students’ perceptions. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics (IJAL), 9 (2), 371 – 381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i2.20234
Knoblauch, C. (2022). Combining and balancing project-based and blended learning in education. International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning (IJAC), 15 (1), 35- 44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijac.v15i1.27135
Lai, C., Yeung, Y., & Hu, J. (2015). University student and teacher perceptions of teacher roles in promoting autonomous language learning with technology outside the classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29 (4), 703-723. DOI:10.1080/09588221.2015.1016441
Lee, J., Choi. H. (2017). What affects learner’s higher-order thinking in technology enhanced learning environments? The effects of learner factors. Computers and Education, 115, 143–152.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.015
Leighton, R.H., and Griffioen, D. (2021). Lecturers’ curational behaviour in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 28 (2), 1–20. DOI:10.1080/13562517.2021.1872530
Little, D. (2011). The European language portfolio: A guide to the planning, implementation and evaluation of whole-school projects. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe
Littlewood, W. (1996). Autonomy: An Anatomy and a framework. System, 2 (4), 427-435.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(96)00039-5
Ludwig, C., & Tassinari, M. G. (2021). Foreign language learner autonomy in online learning environments: the teachers’ perspectives. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 17 (10), 1-18.
DOI:10.1080/17501229.2021.2012476
Marisah, A., Robiasih, H. (2017). The implementation of project-based learning to improve vocational students’ speaking skills. Journal of English Language and Language Teaching (JELLT), 1 (2), 27 – 32.
https://doi.org/10.36597/jellt.v1i2.1868
Mendikbudristek. (2022). Keputusan mnedikbudritek tentang pedoman penerapan kurikulum dalam rangka pemulihan pembelajaran No 56/M/2022: Jakarta.
Myartawan, I, & Latief, M. A. (2013). The correlation between learner Autonomy and English proficiency of Indonesian EFL college learners. TEFLIN Journal, 24 (1), 63 -81.
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Murase, F. (2015). Measuring language learner autonomy: Problems and possibilities. In: Everhard, C.J and Murphy, L. (eds). Assessment and autonomy in language learning. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 35 – 63.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137414380_3
Ogbonna, C. G., Ibezim, N. E., & Obi, C. A. (2019). Synchronous versus asynchronous e-learning in teaching word processing: An experimental approach. South African Journal of Education, 39(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v39n2a1383
O’Rourke, B., & Carson, L. (Eds.) (2010). Language learner autonomy, policy, curriculum, classroom. Bern: Peter Lang.
Oliveira, M, Sporn, Z., Kliemann, L., Borschke, A., & Meyering,M. (2021). Online language learning and workplace communication: a study on Babbel’s onlineclassroom solution. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1501-1527
DOI:10.1080/09588221.2021.2002364
Oxford, R. L. (2003). Toward a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy. In D. Palfreyman & R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives (pp. 75-91). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Padmadewi, N.(2016). Techniques of promoting autonomous learning in the classroom. Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 3 (1), 45 -52.
https://www.jesoc.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/KC3_65.pdf
Reinders, H. (2010). Towards a Classroom Pedagogy for Learner Autonomy: A Framework of Independent Language Learning Skills. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(5), 40-55.
https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2010v35n5.4
Richardson, J. W., Lingat, J. E. M., Hollis, E., College, R., & Pritchard, M. (2020). Shifting teaching and learning in online learning spaces: An investigation of a faculty online teaching and learning initiative. Online Learning Journal, 24(1), 67–91. https://doi.org/10. 24059/olj.v24i1.1629
Sonmez, G. (2016). How ready are your students for autonomous language learning?. Turkish Online Journal of English Language Teaching (TOJELT), 1(3), 126-134. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tojelt/issue/24628/260595
Susanti, A., Rachmajanti, S & Mustofa, A. (2023). Between teachers’ roles and students’ social: Learner autonomy in online learning for EFL students during the pandemic. Cogent Education, 10 (1), 1-16.
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2204698
Suvorov, R., and Cabello, C. (2017). Development of language learner autonomy in adaptive learning systems. In Learner Autonomy and Web 2.0, edited by T. Lewis, M. Cappellini, and A. Rivens Mompean, 36–66. Sheffield: Equinox.
Working Group Schools. (2018). European ideas for better learning: The governance of school education systems. Brussels: ET 2020 Working Group Schools.
Yeh, H., & Heng, L. (2022). Creating a online “third space” in a telecollaborative project to promote English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ language proficiency and intercultural awareness. Interactive Learning Environments, 2 -11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2043384
Yilan, S. M. (2020). A study on Turkish EFL students’ readiness for learner autonomy: Learning activities inside and outside the classroom. Conference Paper, 805-812.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341031083
Yuliani, Y., & Lengkanawati, N. S. (2017). Project-based learning in promoting learner autonomy in an EFL classroom. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 7(2), 285-293. DOI:10.17509/ijal.v7i2.8131
Alimyar, Z., & Lakshmi, S. (2021). A study on language teachers’ preparedness to use technology during COVID-19. Cogent Arts & Humanities 8, (1), 2-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2021.1999064
Aji, W. K., Ardin, H., Arifin, M.A. (2020). Blended learning during pandemic coronavirus: Teachers’ and students’ perceptions. Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, Linguistics and Literature, 8 (2), 632– 646.
DOI:10.24256/ideas.v8i2.1696
Al Ghazali, F. (2020). Challenges and opportunities of fostering learner autonomy and self-access learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. SiSAL Journal, 11 (3), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.37237/110302
Almusharraf, N. (2018). English as a foreign language learner autonomy in vocabulary development: Variation in student autonomy levels and teacher support. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 11(2), 159-177. DOI:10.1108/JRIT-09-2018-0022
Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., Sorensen, C., Razavieh, A. (2010). Introduction to research in education 8th ed. Belmont, USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Astawa, N. L, Artini, L.P., & Nitiasih, P.K (2017). Project-based learning activities and EFL students’ productive skills in English. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 8 (6), 1147-1155.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0806.16
Baz, E., Balcikanli, C., & Chepe, T. (2018) Relationship between teacher stories and encouragement of learner autonomy. Issues in Educational Research, 28 (3), 613-634.
Bennett, S., Dawson, P., Bearman, M., Molloy, E., & Boud, D. (2017). How technology shapes assessment design: Findings from a study of university teachers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48 (2), 672–682. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12439
Benson, P. (1997). The philosophy and politics of learner autonomy. In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning. (pp.18-34). London: Longman.https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315842172
Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning. Harlow: Longman.
Blidi, S. (2017). Collaborative learner autonomy: A mode of learner autonomy development. Oman: Springer
Caravias, V. (2018). Teachers’ conceptions and approaches to blended learning: A literature review. In Online course management: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications, 912–934. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5472-1.ch049
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducing mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage.
Cirocki, A. (2016). Developing learner autonomy through tasks. West Yorkshire, UK: LinguaBooks.
Cirocki, A., Anam, S., Retnaningdyah, P. (2019). Readiness for autonomy in English language learning: The case of Indonesian high school students. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research (IJLTR), 7(2), 1-18.
DOI 10.30466/IJLTR.2019.120695
Collins, H.J., Glover, H., & Myers, F. (2022). Behind the digital curtain: A study of academic identities, liminalities and labor market adaptations for the ‘Uber-Isation’ of HE. Teaching in Higher Education, 27 (2), 201–216.
DOI:10.1080/13562517.2019.1706163
Collado, Z., Landagan, M., Villareal, M., Rescober, A., Baral, G., Pantaleta, F., Banaria, D., & Cortez, C. (2022). Embracing the “New Normal”: exploring readiness among Filipino students to engage in online classes. Learning: Research and Practice, 8 (1), 59-77.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23735082.2022.2032288
Dhillon, S., Murray, N. (2021). An investigation of EAP teachers’ views and experiences of e-learning technology. Education Sciences, 11 (2), 54.
https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11020054
Dinca, M., Lusxtrea, A., Crasxovan, M., Onitxiu, A. Berge,T. (2023). Students’ perspectives on team dynamics in project-based online learning. SAGE Open, 1–16. DOI:10.1177/21582440221147269
Eurydice. (2008). Levels of autonomy and responsibilities of teachers in Europe. Brussels: Education and Culture DG.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning (first published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe). Oxford: Pergamon.
Humphreys, G. & Wyatt, M. (2014). Helping Vietnamese university learners to become more autonomous. ELT Journal, 68 (1), 52–63.
DOI:10.1093/elt/cct056
Hsu, L. (2022). EFL learners’ self-determination and acceptance of LMOOCs: the UTAUT model. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1-29.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1976210
Jing, G. (2017). Peer-teaching in college English classes: An action research to promote learner autonomy. Cross-Cultural Communication, 13 (2), 16-20.
DOI:10.3968/9442
Kaunang, C. J. (2017). Using project-based learning in enhancing students’ speaking skills at SMA PSKD 7. Journal of English Teaching, 3 (2), 119 – 133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33541/jet.v3i2.704
Kemendikbud. (2016). Permendikbud no. 20/2016 tentang Standar Komptensi Lulusan Sekolah Dasar dan Menengah (Minister’s Decree 20/2016 on the Competency Standards of Primary and Secondary School Graduates). Jakarta: Kemdikbud.
Kemendikbud. (2019). Mendikbud tetapkan empat pokok kebijakan pendidikan “Merdeka Belajar” (Minister of education and culture sets four principles of education policy concerning “Learning Independence”). Jakarta: Kemendikbud.SIARAN PERS Nomor:408/sipres/A5.3/XII/2019
https://www.kemdikbud.go.id/
Khotimah, K., Widiati, U., Mustofa, M., Ubaidillah, M. F. (2019). Autonomous English learning: Teachers’ and students’ perceptions. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics (IJAL), 9 (2), 371 – 381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i2.20234
Knoblauch, C. (2022). Combining and balancing project-based and blended learning in education. International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning (IJAC), 15 (1), 35- 44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijac.v15i1.27135
Lai, C., Yeung, Y., & Hu, J. (2015). University student and teacher perceptions of teacher roles in promoting autonomous language learning with technology outside the classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29 (4), 703-723. DOI:10.1080/09588221.2015.1016441
Lee, J., Choi. H. (2017). What affects learner’s higher-order thinking in technology enhanced learning environments? The effects of learner factors. Computers and Education, 115, 143–152.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.015
Leighton, R.H., and Griffioen, D. (2021). Lecturers’ curational behaviour in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 28 (2), 1–20. DOI:10.1080/13562517.2021.1872530
Little, D. (2011). The European language portfolio: A guide to the planning, implementation and evaluation of whole-school projects. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe
Littlewood, W. (1996). Autonomy: An Anatomy and a framework. System, 2 (4), 427-435.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(96)00039-5
Ludwig, C., & Tassinari, M. G. (2021). Foreign language learner autonomy in online learning environments: the teachers’ perspectives. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 17 (10), 1-18.
DOI:10.1080/17501229.2021.2012476
Marisah, A., Robiasih, H. (2017). The implementation of project-based learning to improve vocational students’ speaking skills. Journal of English Language and Language Teaching (JELLT), 1 (2), 27 – 32.
https://doi.org/10.36597/jellt.v1i2.1868
Mendikbudristek. (2022). Keputusan mnedikbudritek tentang pedoman penerapan kurikulum dalam rangka pemulihan pembelajaran No 56/M/2022: Jakarta.
Myartawan, I, & Latief, M. A. (2013). The correlation between learner Autonomy and English proficiency of Indonesian EFL college learners. TEFLIN Journal, 24 (1), 63 -81.
https://scholar.google.nl/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=BuaUJr0AAAAJ&citation_for_view=BuaUJr0AAAAJ:vbGhcppDl1QC
Murase, F. (2015). Measuring language learner autonomy: Problems and possibilities. In: Everhard, C.J and Murphy, L. (eds). Assessment and autonomy in language learning. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 35 – 63.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137414380_3
Ogbonna, C. G., Ibezim, N. E., & Obi, C. A. (2019). Synchronous versus asynchronous e-learning in teaching word processing: An experimental approach. South African Journal of Education, 39(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v39n2a1383
O’Rourke, B., & Carson, L. (Eds.) (2010). Language learner autonomy, policy, curriculum, classroom. Bern: Peter Lang.
Oliveira, M, Sporn, Z., Kliemann, L., Borschke, A., & Meyering,M. (2021). Online language learning and workplace communication: a study on Babbel’s onlineclassroom solution. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1501-1527
DOI:10.1080/09588221.2021.2002364
Oxford, R. L. (2003). Toward a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy. In D. Palfreyman & R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives (pp. 75-91). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Padmadewi, N.(2016). Techniques of promoting autonomous learning in the classroom. Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 3 (1), 45 -52.
https://www.jesoc.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/KC3_65.pdf
Reinders, H. (2010). Towards a Classroom Pedagogy for Learner Autonomy: A Framework of Independent Language Learning Skills. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(5), 40-55.
https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2010v35n5.4
Richardson, J. W., Lingat, J. E. M., Hollis, E., College, R., & Pritchard, M. (2020). Shifting teaching and learning in online learning spaces: An investigation of a faculty online teaching and learning initiative. Online Learning Journal, 24(1), 67–91. https://doi.org/10. 24059/olj.v24i1.1629
Sonmez, G. (2016). How ready are your students for autonomous language learning?. Turkish Online Journal of English Language Teaching (TOJELT), 1(3), 126-134. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tojelt/issue/24628/260595
Susanti, A., Rachmajanti, S & Mustofa, A. (2023). Between teachers’ roles and students’ social: Learner autonomy in online learning for EFL students during the pandemic. Cogent Education, 10 (1), 1-16.
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2204698
Suvorov, R., and Cabello, C. (2017). Development of language learner autonomy in adaptive learning systems. In Learner Autonomy and Web 2.0, edited by T. Lewis, M. Cappellini, and A. Rivens Mompean, 36–66. Sheffield: Equinox.
Working Group Schools. (2018). European ideas for better learning: The governance of school education systems. Brussels: ET 2020 Working Group Schools.
Yeh, H., & Heng, L. (2022). Creating a online “third space” in a telecollaborative project to promote English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ language proficiency and intercultural awareness. Interactive Learning Environments, 2 -11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2043384
Yilan, S. M. (2020). A study on Turkish EFL students’ readiness for learner autonomy: Learning activities inside and outside the classroom. Conference Paper, 805-812.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341031083
Yuliani, Y., & Lengkanawati, N. S. (2017). Project-based learning in promoting learner autonomy in an EFL classroom. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 7(2), 285-293. DOI:10.17509/ijal.v7i2.8131
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2026-04-05
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Chakim, N., Widiati, U., Prayogo, J. A., & Romadhon , A. S. (2026). Learner autonomy in an online project-based learning: voices from Indonesian EFL students. JEES (Journal of English Educators Society), 11(1). https://doi.org/10.21070/jees.v11i1.1959
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Copyright (c) 1970 Nur Chakim
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
